Creativity is simply the ability to look at one thing and see another. All creativity involves combining
and recombining previously known elements into unique configurations. How does this process occur?
What makes the creative genius different from the average person? What do innovative people have that
others don't have, or at least are not using? How can creativity be developed in every person?
Most people think creativity in one of two ways:
- an activity that is held apart from the person and out of the individual's control, or
- the creative person is perhaps a bit insane, but most certainly weird.
However, a third view is increasingly more common in recent years: creativity is
latent in all of
us and it just needs to be brought out.
1
Each of these three perceptions of creativity is supported by at least one major theoretical framework.
The theories are entitled creativity as a function of behavior, of personality, and of cognitive
processes, respectively. The work of B.F. Skinner will represent the behavioral viewpoint, while
Abraham Maslow's ideas will illustrate the personality or humanist perception. These two individuals
will provide some useful insight into the functioning of the creative person.
The third major theoretical framework examines creativity as a cognitive process. Five different views
of the cognitive processes underlying creativity are described below.
Behaviorist View of Creativity
The behaviorist believes a person is not an initiating force in the creative act, but rather a focal
point where environmental and genetic forces come together to have a common effect. Skinner states that
the environment acts upon the individual
"...determining that he will perceive it (the environment) and
act in special ways."2
Skinner supports his statements with an example from biology: the mother supplies protection, warmth,
and nourishment, but she doesn't design the baby who profits from these. The baby is a product of its
genetic heritage. The poet, also, is a product of his past history and the poem occurs to him in bits
and pieces. The analogy breaks down because the poet can accept or reject the bits and pieces where the
mother cannot, but the poet doesn't willfully generate them. They bubble forth as a product of the poet's
past environment.
This does not mean to say that there is no creation--there is in the sense that the product is new--but
the autonomy, the volition of the perceived creative agent is suspect. Skinner concludes by saying the
task is to analyze the genetic and environmental histories responsible for an individual's behavior and
then to create an environment for creative behavior to occur.
Personality-Based Creativity
Maslow writes of creativity as an aspect of personality. This humanistic perspective states that
creativity is a special perceptiveness on the part of certain individuals. These people
"live far more in the real world of nature than in the verbalized
world of concepts, abstractions, beliefs, and stereotypes that most
people confuse with the real world."3
That is to say such people can see the raw, the fresh, the concrete as well as the generic, the
abstract, the categorized, and the classified. He terms these people self-actualized and characterizes
them as having boldness, freedom, courage, and spontaneity. Creativity becomes an attitude shown
throughout the daily life of the individual.
Other qualities used to describe the creative personality include self-confidence, independence, and
openness to experience. They have a sense of humor and playful child-like attitude, a preference for
complexity, an acceptance of disorder, and a tolerance of ambiguity.4
Cognitive Process Creativity
Creativity as a function of a cognitive process is illustrated by Osborn, Wallas, Gordon, Koestler, and
Guilford. The term cognitive process means a volitional mental operation that can be learned in much the
same way as solving a mathematical equation or speaking another language.
1st Viewpoint
Alex Osborn, a partner in a New
York ad agency developed the two-mind theory of creativity. Each person has two minds. The Creative mind
is the idea generator and acts through free association. The Judicial mind is a filter and acts in a
step-by-step logical fashion. He noticed that some people consistently generate more and better ideas
than others. He decided the reason was the dominance of the Creative mind. Creative people were able
to "turn off" the Judicial mind and allow free association to occur. Osborn developed four rules to
help less-creative individuals allow ideas to flow. Brainstorming was thus invented and became a success
in corporate life almost overnight.
2nd Viewpoint
Prior to Osborn, creativity was believed to be contained wholly in the subconscious mind. But the
subconscious was a sporadic and unpredictable source whose inner workings remained a mystery. The
belief developed from reports of various creative people describing their experiences while creating.
The mathematician Henry Poincare explains the typical creative breakthrough:
"For fifteen days I strove to prove that there could not be any functions like those I have since
called Fuchsian functions ...every day I seated myself at my work table, stayed an hour or two, tried
a great number of combinations and reached no results. One evening contrary to my custom, I drank black
coffee and could not sleep. Ideas rose in crowds; I felt them collide until pairs interlocked making a
stable combination. By the next morning I had established the existence of a class of Fuchsian
functions ... I had only to write out the results..."5
These results led to the creative process model tendered by Graham Wallas. The stages are preparation,
incubation, illumination, and verification. The creative individual begins by intensely concentrating
upon the task at hand, maybe spending days or weeks trying to solve the problem analytically. When
conscious work provides no further progress, the individual relaxes, or pursues something entirely
different. During this period of incubation, the subconscious will ferment the problem. The illumination
will burst upon the individual, full flown, when it is least expected. The verification stage requires
conscious manipulation of the insight in order to use it.
This theory depicts the creative process as a 'blackbox' phenomena. It shows how an individual may try
to use the subconscious, but doesn't provide enough information about its inner workings. A contemporary
of Osborn's strove to discover the subconscious mechanism.
3rd Viewpoint
William J. Gordon, an executive of the consulting firm, Arthur D. Little, Inc., was convinced that
creativity involved more than Osborn's two-mind theory. As leader of an elite creative team he began
tape recording their sessions in order to see how the ideas emerged. He observed that as ideas were
developed, each was expressed in terms of an analogy with a similar problem found in nature or elsewhere
in life. Further research into some of history's most notable discoveries confirmed his conclusion. A
case in point is the discovery of microorganisms by Louis Pasteur. Scientists of his day believed
infections were caused by internal gases. Pasteur observed that grapes would ferment only when the
skin was broken and the analogy led to his discovery.6
Metaphor is the mechanism of the creative process according to Gordon. He founded Synectics, Inc., based
on this principle. He has continued to expand upon his original work from the 1950's and in the 1980's
performed experiments to study how the conscious mind communicates with the subconscious. (Gordon and
Poze, 1981)
The subconscious activity is evoked when conscious, verbal thinking is converted into an image which is
allowed to be blurred and fuzzied-up by the subconscious. This is supported by studies on left brain-right
brain specialization from psychology.
The left brain is the center for verbal language and logical reasoning. The right brain functions as the
center for spatial relationships and nonverbal activity using images. The left brain is the conscious mind
while the right brain is the subconscious. Metaphor is the common ground between the two minds because it
provides the vehicle for both verbal language and nonverbal images.7
4th Viewpoint
Arthur Koestler developed his views on creativity from the study of humor, literature, and biology. He
defines creativity as the juxtaposition of two self-consistent, but habitually incompatible
frames of
reference in the physical, psychological, or social world.8 A humorous anecdote illustrates this
principal:
Q: Where does a General keep his Armies?
A: In his sleevies.
The joke is a "cute" play on the definition of the word armies. It is most humorous to grade-school
kids who will be caught up in the military frame of reference with the use of the words 'general' and
'armies'. Laughter occurs when the self-consistent frame of reference is switched to another
self-consistent frame of reference using the key word, 'armies'. Now the perspective is of 'arms'
in 'sleeves'. An unexpected answer is provided indicating a new frame of reference. The
tension created by the unexpected switch is released in laughter.
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
x M1 xxxxx
x x x
x <-> x x
x | xx
xxxxxxxxxxx L xxxxxxxxxxxxxx
x / x x
x <-> x x
x M2 x x
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx x
x x
x x
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Figure 1
An Idea as the Focal Point of Two Reference Frames
This concept is pictured in Figure 1. The perception of a situation or idea, represented by "L", is at
the junction of two self-consistent but habitually incompatible frames of reference or matrices, M1 and
M2. The perception, L, vibrates on two wavelengths simultaneously and brings the frames of reference
together. Koestler calls this bisociation. This is the essence of creativity.
There are two types of bisociative creativity:
- 1. Associative Routine or Habit
- The type is characterized by repetitiveness, conservation, rigid to flexible variations on a theme, and
associations developed only within the confines of one given matrix. This type of creation can lead
to discovery, by an individual, of perceptions heretofore unknown to that person, but not new in the
context of greater humanity. New discoveries and inventions in actual fact are the result of the second
type of creativity.
- 2. Originality
- The second type is named Originality and contains the following elements.
- the result is novel and entirely new.
- it is a destructive/constructive process that destroys old perceptions through new ones.
- the process is guided by the subconscious which normally is restrained.
- there is super-flexibility in variations and theme.
- it is the bisociation of independent matrices.9
The quality of the originality is the measure of the unlikeliness of the probable association of the
matrices. The farther they are apart the greater is the creative achievement when they are associated
together.
5th Viewpoint
J.P. Guilford's Model of the Intellect derived from his work in the field of education. This model describes
several types of thinking functions. Certain combinations of those functions underly creativity. The model
is composed of five kinds of operations and four kinds of material content that, when combined, result in
six classes of products. Figure 2 illustrates the three parameters of this model as a cube.
Figure 2
Guilford's Model of the Intellect
--------------------------------
/ / |
/ / | |
/ / | / |
/ / | / | |
/ / | / | /|
CONTENT ----------------------------- / | / | /| |
Figural | | | | | | / | /| /|
----------------------------- / | /| /| | PRODUCTS
Symbolic | | | | | | /| /| /
----------------------------- /| /| / Implications
Semantic | | | | | | /| / Transformations
----------------------------- /| / Systems
Behavioral | | | | | | / Relations
----------------------------- / Classes
Units
OPERATIONS: Divergent
Cognition Thinking
Memory Convergent
Thinking
Evaluation
The Five Operations are
- Cognition - the discovery, rediscovery, or recognition of something.
- Memory - the ability to retain specific cognition.
- Divergent Thinking - the ability to move along different paths or directions from given information.
- Convergent Thinking - is the ability to bring together several pieces of information to a focal point of a single correct answer.
- Evaluation - the ability to make decisions based upon correctness, suitability, and adequacy.
The Four Categories of Content are
- Figural - refers to concrete material described by various properties such as size, form, color, and texture.
- Symbolic - content are letters, digits, and other signs used to represent objects or processes.
- Semantic - refers to verbal meanings and ideas.
- Behavioral - content is information in the form of actions, desires, thoughts, and feelings of other people which we can know and use in dealing with people.
The Products resulting from the association of the operations and content can be grouped into six
categories.
- Units are basic elements or ideas. In the terminology of grammar, a unit functions in the same
manner as a noun.
- Classes refer to groups of units with common elements.
- Relations are a connecting link between two units or classes. This link has its own character and
is similar to the preposition in grammar. Examples are "married to" and "harder than."
- Systems are complexes or organizations of interdependent, interacting parts. Examples include an
outline or a mathematical equation.
- Transformations occur when one item of information becomes something else. Participles describe this
kind of product: shrinking or inverting.
- Implications are perceptions that can be predicted, expected, or anticipated from information.10
Guilford feels that creativity is part of the divergent, convergent, and evaluative thinking operations.
It is measured by the flexibility, fluency, and originality of responses to a given problem situation. It
is also measured by the sensitivity of an individual to a problem and the ability to redefine information.
Flexibility is the ability to break apart and reform different configurations of classes, relations, and
systems. Fluency is measured by the sheer number of units produced. Originality is the ability to generate
a variety of transformations. These three are part of the divergent thinking mode.
Sensitivity to problems is in the evaluative mode. The individual must be able to evaluate situations
for unmet needs in order to bring about improvement. The convergent thinking mode is used to redefine
information. The product is a transformation. A lot of creative effort is in the form of transforming
something known into something not previously known.
Summary
The three major theoretical frameworks of creativity are the Behaviorist, Personality-based, and Cognitive
Processes. The Behaviorists state creativity a product of one's environment and genetic make-up. To
induce creative behavior, one must set up an environment to allow creativity to occur. The Personality-based
view states that creativity is a special perceptiveness on the part of certain individuals. Finally, the Cognitive
Process framework describe creativity as a thinking process implying it is a learned behavior that can be improved.
Footnotes
- Walter Kiechel, "Creative Ability", pg. 109-110.
- B.F. Skinner, "A Behavioral Model of Creation", pg. 269.
- A. Maslow, "Creativity in Self Actualizating People", pg. 88.
- D. Shallcross, Teaching Creative Behavior, pg. 10.
- D. Ghiselin, The Creative Process, pg. 36.
- Niles Howard, "Business Probes the Creative Spark", pg. 34.
- W. Gordon and T. Poze, "Conscious/Subconscious Interaction in a Creative Act", pg. 8.
- A. Koestler, "Bisociation in Creation", pg. 108.
- A. Koestler, "Bisociation in Creation", pg. 112-113.
- J. P. Guilford, "Creativity: Its Measurement and Development", pg. 160-161.
Bibliography
- Ghiselin, Brewster, (ed), The Creative Process, New York: New American Library, 1952.
- Gordon, William and Poze, Tony, "Conscious/Subconscious Interaction in a Creative Act," Journal of Creative Behavior, 1981, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 1-10.
- Guilford, J.P., "Creativity: Its Measurement and Development," in Parnes and Harding, A Source Book for Creative Thinking, Section 14, pg. 151-168.
- Howard, Niles, "Business Probes the Creative Spark", Dun's Review, January 1980, pp. 32-38.
- Kiechel, W., "Creative Ability", Fortune, July 25, 1983, p. 109+.
- Koestler, Arthur, "Bisociation in Creation," in Rothenberg and Hausman, The Creativity Question, pp. 108-113.
- Maslow, Abraham, "Creativity in Self-Actualizing People," in Rothenberg and Hausman, The Creativity Question, pp. 86-92.
- Parnes, Sidney and Harding, Harold, (ed), A Source Book for Creative Thinking, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1962.
- Rothenberg, Albert and Hausman, Carl, The Creativity Question, Durham: Duke University Press, 1976.
- Shallcross, Doris , Teaching Creative Behavior, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1981.
- Skinner, B.F., "A Behavioral Model of Creation," in Rothenberg and Hausman, The Creativity Question, pp. 267-272.