This is the genealogy of the programming language Algol W:

Algol W is a child of Algol 60.
Algol W was born around year 1966.
Then it begat Pascal in year 1970.

This genealogy is brought to you by the Programming Languages Genealogy Project. Please send comments to thbz.

In the early 1960s, the IFIP Working Group 2.1 committee was created with the mandate to design a programming language to replace Algol 60. By the time of the regular committee meeting in the fall of 1966, there were three competing proposals on the table. One of the proposals, by Niklaus Wirth, was for a language which was a relatively modest improvement over Algol 60. One of the other proposals, by Van Wijngaarden, was chosen by the committee and was to evolve into Algol 68.

As a result of the decision to pursue Van Wijngaarden's proposal, a number of the committee members, including Wirth and C.A.R. Hoare, abandoned the committee (it was, apparently, a pretty intense meeting). Wirth developed his proposal into an Algol-style language which, eventually, came to be known as Algol W (like Algol 60 before it, the Algol W language's grammar was formally described using BNF notation).

Although less ambitious than Van Wijngaarden's proposal, Wirth's language introduced a number of new concepts including:

When it came time to actually write a compiler for the language, a decision was made to first develop a systems programming language called PL360 (the only real alternatives were FORTRAN and Assembler). Once a PL360 compiler had been written, it was used (in about 1968) to implement an Algol W compiler on the OS/360 and MTS operating systems. As far as I know, Algol W was never supported on any other platforms.

Algol W was reasonably successful as a teaching language although it was rarely if ever used in commercial contexts. By about 1980, Algol W was being replaced by languages like Pascal.

Sidebar: In my opinion, Algol W is a much better teaching language than Pascal or pretty much any of the languages which have followed it. Unlike these other languages, Algol W is a relatively clean language which presents the new programmer with a minimum number of magical phrases which must simply be accepted until they can be explained later. It also has enough expressive power and capabilities to allow the novice programmer to explore quite complex software development concepts. One other important feature is that core dumps and the equivalent don't happen as any operation which could conceivably disrupt the state of the program in such a major way is caught and reported as an appropriate run-time error.

I was lecturing in Computing Science when my University made the switch from Algol W to Pascal. There is no doubt in my mind that the idiosyncrasies of Pascal far outweighed any advantages that it may have had over Algol W (the switch was justified primarily because Pascal was being used in industry and Algol W wasn't - I was never able to figure out what relevance this had as Algol W was being used as an introductory language in only the first year of a four year program). See dinosaur for a more thorough understanding of my biases.

The Algol W language

The following is a brief description of the language as it was defined in 1972.
Sidebar: Some minor changes were made between the original version and the version that's described (the ALGOL W REFERENCE MANUAL June 1972 edition provides some details about the changes since the earlier versions (see Sources section at the end)). This description uses the present tense although, as far as I know, there are no compilers still available for Algol W (it is possible that a compiler for the old OS/360 operating system would still run on current IBM mainframe operating systems).

Basic syntax

Algol W dates back to the days of punched cards. Consequently, the language is defined strictly in terms of upper case. For example, the following is a valid Algol W program
BEGIN
WRITE("Hello world");
END.
but the following is not
begin
write("Hello world");
end.
Like C, statements are terminated by a semi-colon and whitespace can appear anywhere except within an identifier or reserved word.

The reserved words are ABS, ALGOL (used when writing separately compiled 'modules'), AND, ARRAY, ASSERT, BEGIN, BITS, CASE, COMMENT, COMPLEX, DIV, DO, ELSE, END, FALSE, FOR, FORTRAN (used to call a separately compiled FORTRAN routine), GO TO (eek!), GOTO (sigh?), IF, INTEGER, IS, LOGICAL, LONG, NULL, OF, OR, PROCEDURE, REAL, RECORD, REFERENCE, REM, RESULT, SHL, SHORT, SHR, STEP, STRING, THEN, TRUE, UNTIL, VALUE and WHILE.

Data types

The following is the list of data types supported by the language. Example declarations and constants are provided for each data type.
  • INTEGER (32-bit signed integer)
    INTEGER I, J;
    10
    1232
    
  • REAL (32-bit floating point)
    REAL W, X;
    10.
    10.0
    0.1
    .1
    
  • LONG REAL (64-bit floating point)
    LONG REAL Y, Z;
    10.L
    10.0L
    0.1L
    .1L
    10L
    
  • COMPLEX (32-bit complex - i.e. a pair of 32-bit floating point values)
    COMPLEX A, B;
    10.I
    10.0I
    0.1I
    .1I
    10I
    
    Note that the complex constant only represents the imaginary part of the number. A specification of a complete complex value would involve the addition of a real value with a complex value. e.g. 5.0 + 3I or 7 + 3I (the integer constant 7 would be automatically converted to the real value 7.0 before it was added to the complex constant value 3i).

  • LONG COMPLEX (64-bit complex - i.e. a pair of 64-bit floating point values)
    COMPLEX C, D;
    10.IL 10.0IL 0.1IL .1IL 10IL
    
  • LOGICAL (a boolean value - i.e. either TRUE or FALSE)
    LOGICAL E, F;
    TRUE
    FALSE
    
  • BITS (a 32 element sequence of bits)
    BITS G, H;
    #001248CF
    
    Note that bits constants are represented in hexadecimal. The above constant is equivalent to the binary value 00000000000100100100100011001111.

  • STRING (fixed length string)
    STRING S; STRING(40) T;
    "hello"        a string containing the 5 characters h, e, l, l and o
    """"           a string containing a single "
    
    All strings are fixed length with a minimum length of 1 and a maximum length of 256. If the length isn't specified in a STRING declaration then it defaults to 16. Also note that there is no backslash-convention as is found in many "modern" languages. Use two double quotes in a row if you want to have a single double quote within a string constant.

  • RECORD (essentially a C-style struct)
    RECORD PERSON( STRING(40) NAME; INTEGER AGE; REAL HEIGHT );
    PERSON( "DANIEL BOULET", 45, 180.3 )
    PERSON
    
    The PERSON( "DANIEL BOULET", 45, 180.3 ) example defines a new PERSON RECORD and initializes all the fields. The second PERSON example creates a new PERSON RECORD with the field values uninitialized. Neither of these examples are really constants.

  • REFERENCE (essentially a Java-style pointer - i.e. no pointer-to-pointer or pointer arithmetic operations are supported)
    REFERENCE (PERSON) DANIEL; REFERENCE (PERSON,THING) IT;
    NULL
    
    • a REFERENCE variable can be declared to point at either a single RECORD type (e.g. DANIEL above) or a list of alternative record types (e.g. IT above). If a REFERENCE variable can point at more than one RECORD type then the IS operator (see below) can be used to determine which type it actually points at.
    • the only REFERENCE constant is the NULL value.
Algol W also supports arrays which can be constructed using any of the other data types. Here are a few example declarations:
INTEGER ARRAY VECTOR(1::10);         COMMENT ten element array of integers;
REAL    ARRAY MATRIX(1::10,1::10);   COMMENT a square 10x10 array of reals;
INTEGER ARRAY RANGE(-10::10);        COMMENT a 21 element array (-10 to +10);
REFERENCE(THING) ARRAY THINGS(1::N); COMMENT an array of references to
                                             things with a size determined
					     at run-time;
Any of the bounds of an array declaration can be an expression which is evaluated at run-time. If the result is an array in which the lower bound is greater than the upper bound (for any dimension) then the array has no elements - i.e. any attempt to access the array will result in a run-time array bounds error.
Sidebar: Compare this to the Pascal of the era's requirement that the array size be a compile-time constant and then ask yourself how long it takes to convince a class of brand new first-year Computing Science students learning Pascal that there is no way to declare an array of run-time-variable size. Sorry - you're wrong. It takes at least twice as long as that!

This is the voice of bitter experience talking here. I came to the conclusion that the idea that arrays should be of run-time-variable size was intuitively obvious (I already knew that Pascal was a poor teaching language).

I didn't enjoy being grilled by the students on this point so I tried a number of ways to present the Pascal approach without opening up this particular can of worms. I never succeeded entirely although some interrogations were less rigorous than others.

I've managed to avoid Pascal for the last thirty years (hooray!). This particular stupidity may have been fixed since the last time that I had the "pleasure" of teaching it to first year students (who, back then, generally knew absolutely nothing about computer programming when they started University).

I'm told that ISO Pascal has variable length arrays. That means that there's only about a dozen or two other fatal flaws left to fix (see axe and grind for more information).

Array elements are referenced by suffixing the array's name with a parenthesized list of indexing expressions. Examples for each of the above arrays are:
WRITE( VECTOR(1) );           COMMENT print out first element of VECTOR;
MATRIX(10,1) := MATRIX(1,10); COMMENT copy an element of MATRIX;
RANGE(0) := 0;                COMMENT set the middle element of RANGE to 0;
WRITE(NAME(THINGS(1)));       COMMENT write out the value of the NAME field of the first THING;

Operators and expressions

Algol W supports the usual set of operators although it distinguishes between integer and non-integer division operators. The operators are:
OR
AND
¬
< <= = ¬= >= > IS
+ -
* / DIV REM
SHL SHR **
LONG SHORT ABS
A few notes are in order:
  • The operators on each line in the above list are of equal precedence (i.e. priority) with the first line being the lowest precedence and the last line having the highest precedence.

  • ¬ is the logical negation operator (equivalent to the C programming language's ! operator) and ¬= is the inequality comparison operator (equivalent to C's != operator).

  • the IS operator can be used to determine which RECORD type a REFERENCE variable is pointing at. e.g.
    IF IT IS PERSON THEN
       WRITE("IT is pointing at a PERSON record")
    ELSE
       WRITE("IT is not pointing at a PERSON record");
    
  • DIV and REM are the integer divide and remainder operators (if / is applied to a pair of integer values then the result is a real value).

  • SHL and SHR are the bit-wise shift left and right operators.

  • LONG 'expands' REAL and COMPLEX values to LONG REAL and LONG COMPLEX. SHORT 'contracts' LONG REAL and LONG COMPLEX values to REAL and COMPLEX. It's an error to apply LONG to something which is already LONG or to apply SHORT to something which is not LONG.

  • ABS returns the absolute value of it's operand.

  • with the exception of the OR and AND operators, the operands of binary operators were evaluated in an unpredictable order. For example, the expression F(X) * G(X) might result in F(X) being called either before or after G(X) gets called. The order would be always the same for a given compilation of a given program but could change if the program was recompiled. Consequently, an operator which combined the result of two function calls which each modified the same global variable could cause unpredictable results.

  • the AND and OR operators are McCarthy operators - i.e. they use what today is often called lazy evaluation: If the left operand of an OR is true then the right operand isn't evaluated as the result can only be TRUE. Similarily, if the left operand of an AND is false then the right operand isn't evaluated as the result can only be FALSE.
Parentheses can, of course, be used to override the operator precedence. Missing from the above list is the unary - and + operators which have higher precendence than any of the binary operators.

Missing from this entire writeup is a description of the reasonably large (for the era) set of built-in library routines.

Also missing from the above list is a mechanism to access fields of a RECORD. The syntax for this is identical to a function call where the name of the function is the name of the field and the single parameter to the call is the REFERENCE variable. For example,

AGE(DANIEL) := AGE(DANIEL) + 1;
would increment the AGE field of the PERSON record referenced by DANIEL.

An example program

Here's a very short example program
BEGIN
INTEGER I, J, PRODUCT;
READ(I,J);    COMMENT read two integers from the input device;
PRODUCT :=
           I * J; WRITE("The product is ",PRODUCT);
END.
A few notes are in order
  • The entire program must be enclosed in a BEGIN-END block and the final END must have a period after it.

  • The READ statement is a call to the built-in READ procedure which reads a single input line and assigns successive values to successive parameters (input is free format in this example and additional input lines are read if necessary).

  • Comments are inserted by using the COMMENT reserved word. Everything up to the next semi-colon is ignored.

  • Multiple statements can appear on a single line and a statement can span any number of lines.

  • The assignment operator is :=. This allows it to be distinguished from the comparison for equality operator which is =.

  • Lower case letters are allowed within comments and string constants.

Block structured

Like all Algol languages, Algol W is a block structured language. This means that the scope of an identifier is determined by the block within which it is declared. For example, the output of the following program
BEGIN
INTEGER I;
I := 10;
WRITE("I is ",I);
   BEGIN
   INTEGER I;
   I := 20;
   WRITE("this I is ",I);
   END;
WRITE("I is still ",I);
   BEGIN
   I := 30;
   WRITE("I is now ",I);
   END;
WRITE("I's final value is ",I);
END.
would be
I is 10
this I is 20
I is still 10
I is now 30
I's final value is 30
The scope of the I declared on the second line is the entire program except for the first inner block which has a different I declared within it.

Procedures

Algol W has function procedures and proper procedures. A function procedure returns a value and can be used in any context in which an expression can appear. A proper procedure does not return a value. Today, these are generally called functions and procedures respectively. Procedures of either kind can be defined to accept parameters. Here are a pair of examples:
BEGIN
INTEGER P, Q;

PROCEDURE PROC( INTEGER VALUE I, J; INTEGER RESULT PRODUCT );
   BEGIN
   WRITE("call to PROC - I is ",I,", J is ",J,".");
   PRODUCT := I * J;
   END;

INTEGER PROCEDURE FUNC( INTEGER VALUE I, J );
    BEGIN
    WRITE("call to FUNC - I is ",I,", J is ",J,".");
    I * J
    END;

PROC(10, 20, P);
Q := FUNC(10, 20);
END.
The first is a proper procedure called PROC which takes two integer parameters which are initialized based on the first two arguments passed on the call to PROC (i.e. I is initialized to 10 and J is initialized to 20 in this example). It returns a result parameter PRODUCT (i.e. P will be assigned 200 just as the call to PROC returns).

The second is a function procedure called FUNC which takes two integer parameters and returns their product as the value of the procedure (the last thing before the closing END in a function procedure's body must be an expression which is evaluated to compute the value of the procedure).

Here's an example of a function procedure that takes no parameters:

BEGIN
INTEGER Q;

REAL PROCEDURE ZERO;
   BEGIN
   0
   END;

Q := ZERO;
END.
This is an expensive (and absurd) way to initialize Q to 0.

Short procedures consisting of a single statement can dispense with the BEGIN-END block:

PROCEDURE HELLO;
    WRITE("Hello");

Algol W, like its predecessor Algol 60, also supports the call by name parameter passing mechanism:

BEGIN
INTEGER J;
PROCEDURE BYNAME(INTEGER MAGIC);
   BEGIN
   WRITE("MAGIC is ",MAGIC);
   J := J * 2;
   WRITE("MAGIC is now ",MAGIC);
   END;
J := 10;
BYNAME(J * 3);
END.
A call by name parameter is re-evaluated every time it is used. Consequently, the output of the above program would be:
MAGIC is 30
MAGIC is now 60
The potential for, shall we say, strange program behaviour when using call by name is great enough that the mechanism is rarely used. In fact, Algol 60, Algol W and Ruby are the only languages that I'm aware of that support it (other languages support vaguely similar mechanisms, none of which have been very successful).

See parameter passing mechanism for a more complete discussion of these mechanisms.

A binary operator which combines the value of two function calls, at least one of which modifies a global variable and the other of which relies upon the same global variable, produces unpredictable results. For example, the output of the following program

BEGIN
INTEGER J;
INTEGER PROCEDURE LEFT;
   BEGIN
   J := J + 1;
   J
   END;
INTEGER PROCEDURE RIGHT;
   BEGIN
   J := J * 3;
   J
   END;
J := 2;
WRITE( LEFT * RIGHT );
END.
might be 27 or 42 depending on which of LEFT or RIGHT is called first when the operands of the * operator in the WRITE call are evaluated.

Like all the Algol languages, Algol W supports recursion. Here's an excellent way to consume vast quantities of CPU time:

INTEGER PROCEDURE ACKERMANN(INTEGER VALUE X, Y);
    IF X = 0 THEN
	Y + 1
    ELSE IF Y = 0 THEN
	ACKERMANN(X - 1, 1)
    ELSE
	ACKERMANN(X - 1, ACKERMANN(X, Y - 1));
If you want to find out if your computer can stay up for a few thousand millennium, call this function with
ACKERMANN(1000,1000)
The world, if not the universe, will end before you get an answer yet it is possible to prove that an answer would eventually appear if sufficient time were provided to perform the computation.

Don't try this one at home (or at the office).

Block expressions

Although apparently not part of the original language, the 1972 version of Algol W supports block expressions. This is a generalization of how function procedure bodies are written. It allows the following sort of nonsense to be written:
BEGIN
WRITE("the answer is ",
   BEGIN
   INTEGER X;
   X := 2 * 3;
   X
   END
   * 7
);
END.
In practical terms, block expressions aren't used very often as they tend to make the program harder to read without adding any real value.

Block expressions which modify global variables can also produce unpredictable results:

BEGIN
INTEGER J;
J := 2;
WRITE(
   BEGIN
   J := J + 1;
   J
   END
   *
   BEGIN
   J := J * 3;
   J
   END
);
END.
This program is equivalent to the example given above involving the function procedures LEFT and RIGHT.

Other statements

The IF statement is used to conditionally execute a single statement:
IF I > 10 THEN
   I := I * 2;
An ELSE clause can be included to deal with the alternative case:
IF I > 10 THEN
   I := I * 2
ELSE
   I := I - 3;
Notice that the statement preceding the ELSE isn't terminated by a semi-colon. The reason is that there is actually only one statement here and it's terminated by a semi-colon after the 3.

If an ELSE clause exists then the statement after the THEN must be a simple statement (e.g. an assignment statement, a call to a proper procedure or a BEGIN-END block). Since an IF statement is not a simple statement, the following is invalid:

IF A < B THEN
    IF X > Y THEN
	X := 2
    ELSE
	Y := 2
ELSE
    Q := 2;
The following is a valid way of expressing what was intended above:
IF A < B THEN
    BEGIN
    IF X > Y THEN
	X := 2
    ELSE
	Y := 2;
    END
ELSE
    Q := 2;
An IF statement without an ELSE clause can have any statement for its body. Consequently, the following is valid:
IF A < B THEN
    IF X > Y THEN
	X := 2
    ELSE
	Y := 2;
as is
IF A < B THEN
    IF X > Y THEN
	X := 2
    ELSE
	IF X < Y THEN
	    X := 3
	ELSE
	    X := 5;
IMPORTANT: don't let the indentation fool you. This
IF A < B THEN IF X > Y THEN X := 2 ELSE IF X < Y THEN X := 3 ELSE X := 5;
is identical in all respects (except meaningless indentation) to the previous example!

Just to be clear, the last two examples are also equivalent to this:

IF A < B THEN
    BEGIN
    IF X > Y THEN
	X := 2
    ELSE
	BEGIN
	IF X < Y THEN
	    X := 3
	ELSE
	    X := 5;
	END;
    END;

If the body of the THEN part or the ELSE part needs to be more than a single statement then a BEGIN-END block is required:

IF I > 10 THEN
   BEGIN
   I := I * 2;
   J := 2;
   END
ELSE
   BEGIN
   I := I - 3;
   J := 5;
   END;
The notion of block expressions is also available in what is called a conditional expression:
J :=
IF I > 10 THEN
   BEGIN
   I := I * 2;
   2
   END
ELSE
   BEGIN
   I := I - 3;
   5
   END;
This is functionally equivalent to the previous IF-THEN-ELSE example.

Here's an IF statement that takes advantage of the fact that the AND and OR operators are McCarthy-style (i.e. lazy evaluation like the C || and && operators):

IF PTR ¬= NULL AND XVAR(PTR) > 10 THEN
   BEGIN
   WRITE("XVAR is too big");
   ASSERT FALSE;
   END;
This also demonstrates the ASSERT statement which can be used to abort the program if an assumption fails. A shorter but more meaningful example of ASSERT would be:
ASSERT NOT ( PTR = NULL OR XVAR(PTR) <= 10 );
The program will terminate with a run-time assertion-failure if the logical (i.e. boolean) expression on the ASSERT statement is false. The first example is, arguably, better as the user gets a better error message prior to termination.

The FOR statement is used when the number of iterations required is known prior to the start of the first iteration. For example, the following would print out all the integers from 1 to 10:

FOR I := 1 UNTIL 10 DO
   WRITE(I);
FOR loops can go backwards as well:
FOR I := 10 STEP -1 UNTIL 1 DO
   WRITE(I);
This gives you the integers from 10 down to 1. Once the direction has been determined (i.e. the sign of the STEP), the loop starts at the initial value and iterates until the termination value. If the initial value is after the termination value in an upwards loop or before the termination value in a downwards loop then the loop body is not executed. The initial, step and termination values are computed exactly once (i.e. changing the variables involved in their computation once the loop starts has no effect on how many times the loop goes around or what value is assigned to the iterating variable on each iteration).

The iterating variable, I in the above example, is implicitly declared by the FOR statement as an INTEGER (i.e. it exists only for the duration of the FOR loop) and it may not be assigned to within the body of the loop. There is no exact equivalent to the C language's break or continue statements although the language supports go to statements for the truly foolish (or very brave). There is also nothing equivalent to C's return statement.

The WHILE loop is used when the FOR statement isn't suitable (e.g. number of iterations not known in advance or irregular step size). A single example should suffice:

J := 1;
WHILE A(J) < 0 AND J <= 10 DO
   BEGIN
   J := J + 1;
   IF J = 3 THEN
      J := J + 1;
   END;
The body of a FOR or a WHILE statement can be any valid single statement (use a BEGIN-END block if a multi-statement body is required).

The CASE statement is somewhat analogous to the C language's switch statement although it operates rather differently. Here's an example:

CASE I - 1 OF
    BEGIN
    J := 2;
    J := 3;
    BEGIN J := 5; K := 8; END;
    K := J
    END;
The case selector expression (i.e. I - 1 in this example) is used to select a single statement within the body of the BEGIN-END block which is then executed. The value of the expression determines the ordinal number of the statement to execute. i.e. if I - 1 is 1 then the J := 2 statement is executed, if I - 1 is 2 then the J := 3 statement is executed, etc. Note the use of an inner BEGIN-END block which allows the third statement to actually consists of two statements. It is a fatal run-time error if the value of the case selector expression is less than 1 or greater than the number of statements in the BEGIN-END block.

Concluding remarks

Although not a complete description of the language, hopefully this writeup has provided you with a strong sense of what the Algol W language is like. As there are (probably) no compilers remaining for the language, it must be considered to be a dead programming language. This is probably appropriate if the language is viewed from the perspective of modern languages in a non-educational context. I'm less convinced that this is appropriate in the "teaching a first language" context. Unfortunately(?), that battle was fought and lost about thirty years ago. (I've heard of universities that used to use C as an introductory programming language - This always struck me as cruel and unusual punishment!).

I'd be interested in hearing from folks who know what their local university is using as a first programming language these days.

As I don't have access to an Algol W compiler, I've not been able to compile or run any of the examples shown above (this is also why there isn't a final large example program demonstrating many aspects of the language). Please forward any corrections to the examples or any other aspect of this writeup to me so that I can update the writeup.

The ALGOL W REFERENCE MANUAL June 1972 edition is available online (see sources below) if you'd like to know more about the language. Feel free to ask me questions although it's been at least thirty years since I wrote an Algol W program that did anything useful . . .


Sources

  • the web page titled ALGOL W from FOLDDOC at http://wombat.doc.ic.ac.uk/foldoc/foldoc.cgi?ALGOL+W (last accessed 2002/10/24)
  • the web page titled Summary of projects by N. Wirth at http://www.inf.ethz.ch/~wirth/projects.html (last accessed 2002/10/24)
  • ALGOL W REFERENCE MANUAL June 1972 edition; available on the 'net via a hyperlink on a page titled historic documents in computer science and engineering located at http://www.fh-jena.de/~kleine/history/ (last accessed 2002/10/24)
  • Personal recollections

The compiler for ALGOL W, on the Michigan Terminal System (MTS), at Newcastle University had some interesting quirks which I discovered by accident. The short story is that constants were actually variables allocated on the stack just like any other variable declared in the current block. Obviously, they were initialized to their value and you couldn't assign new values to them. Well, you could, but only by accident! I imagine that this approach (constants as specialized variables) made code generation easier.

As part of the explanation for how I discovered this I first have to digress into a short explanation of the way Newcastle had set up the MTS file system. Each line of the file was numbered starting at 1 and going on up. This is great when you know exactly what you're going to enter into your files. If, later, I wanted to insert a line between lines 1 and 2 I could do so and it would be given a line number of, I think, 1.3, but it might have been 1.6! It doesn't matter the exact value, what matters is that line numbers weren't necessarily integers! Except that they were! You could take the line number displayed when editing a file, multiply it by 1000 and get the integer line number associated with that line of the file. This whole approach avoided any need for renumbering files until you had the pressing need to, for example, insert a line between 1.234 and 1.235

I was writing some program and called a system level function (using the FORTRAN keyword even though I was calling an assembler function) to read a line 1 of a file. That worked fine, I got the line, but when I tried to eliminate the last character of the string I got an out of bounds error as index -973 didn't exist! Even more puzzling, if I tried the same thing in a different part of the program it worked just fine!

This error caused a little consternation as one of the systems programmers had been recently updating the compiler and it looked like I'd found a weird bug. He breathed a huge sigh of relief when he was able to track down the problem.

The call to the system function (remember it was called with the FORTRAN keyword) was, in essence, call by name with a "special" variable that was really the constant 1. The underlying routine had figured I didn't mean line 1, but line 1000 and had silently multiplied 1 by 1000 to get the line reference. Now, on returning to the ALGOL W program, the constant 1 had the value 1000 in that particular block. In outer blocks, the constant 1 still had the value 1.

End of anecdote that is a long way of saying constants were variable!

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