Niger

The Republic of Niger is large country located in the centre of West Africa, bordering on Burkina Faso and Mali in the west, Algeria and Libya in the north, Chad in the east, and on Nigeria and Benin in the south. The country has a population over 11.8 million (2002) and Niamey is its capital and largest city. Niger is divided into 8 administrative regions: Agadez, Diffa, Dosso, Maradi, Niamey, Tahoua, Tillabéry, and Zinder.

Most Nigeriens (not Nigerians) belong to one of six major ethnic groups: Hausa, Kanuri, Songhai, Djerma (Zarma), Fulani, or Tuareg, with the remainder either Beri Beri, Arab, Toubou, Gourmanche, or European (mainly French). The majority live in rural areas in the south, and there is significant seasonal migration to Ghana, Nigeria, and Chad. Approximately 80% of Nigeriens are Muslim, and the rest mainly practice indigenous beliefs, though there is a small Christian minority. Niger's official language is French, but Hausa and Djerma are also widely spoken there.

Early History

Neolithic traces of pastoralism have been found in the northern desert areas of Niger, and Ptolemy wrote of Roman expeditions to the Aïr Massif, but the central theme of the history of the country is undoubtedly the interaction between two opposite, but complementary, civilizations: the nomadic Tuareg (Tubu) of the vast Saharan north and the agriculturist Songhai-Zerma, Hausa, and Kanuri of the southwest, south, and southeast. The Tuareg first migrated to the Aïr region in the 11th century, where they founded a state centred at Agadez on territory rich in copper. The Hausa later established several city-states in southern Niger during the 14th century, though much of western and central Niger came under the Songhai Empire in the early 16th century. This empire fell at the end of the same century, passing the southeastern third of Niger to the Kanuri kingdom of Bornu. The Djerma then arrived in southwestern Niger in the 17th century, while the Fulani gained control of a portion of southern Niger in the early 19th century as a result of the war waged against the Hausa by Muslim reformer Usuman dan Fodio. The great droughts that followed these territorial divisions allowed the Saharan Tuareg to extend their control southward over large portions of previously agricultural regions.

Colonial History

The patchwork of kingdoms on the territory of present-day Niger was finally handed over to the French at the Conference of Berlin in 1885, who then managed to establish a few military posts in the 1890s, but whose conquest nearly ended in disaster due to strong resistance from the Tuareg and the others. In 1900, Niger became a military territory within Upper Senegal-Niger, but the French were unable to occupy Agadez up until 1904. It was only in 1922, after the severe drought and famine of 1913-1915 and the suppression of the Tuareg uprising of 1916-1917, that the French felt safe enough to organize civilian colonial administration and to make Niger a colony within French West Africa. Zinder was initially made capital city, but it was replaced by Niamey in 1926.

Nigerien national political activity began with the French constitution of 1946, which granted Niger its own national assembly (plus representatives in the French one), and established the French Union. The Niger Progressive Party (PPN), as part of the French West Africa-wide Rassemblement Démocratique Africain, was formed as Niger's first major political organization. A leftist party headed by Bakary Djibo, later called Sawaba, overtook the PPN in popularity in the mid-1950s, but faded when 72% of the electorate voted to keep ties with France in a 1958 referendum. The PPN regained power as it favoured autonomy for Niger within the French Community. Niger achieved independence on August 3, 1960.

Post-Colonial History

Hamani Diori, leader of the PPN, became the independent Republic of Niger's first president. Diori instituted a single-party dictatorship and continued to rule despite sporadic rebel warfare waged by the now-outlawed Sawaba party, whose members largely lived in exile. The PPN maintained firm control of the goverment and continued to receive considerable aid from France until the regime was toppled by a military coup in 1974, led by Lt. Col. Seyni Koutché. Although Koutché's international ties served him well during his rule, the uranium boom of the early 1980s would cause civil unrest, eventually leading to a failed coup attempt in 1983. Koutché headed the military dictatorship until his death in 1987.

Gen. Ali Seybou succeeded Koutché as president, but vowed to introduce civilian rule. The constitution was suspended and the military government was dissolved in 1991, allowing a transitional civilian government to take its place until 1993, when Niger held its first multiparty elections. Mahamane Ousmane was elected president, but an opposition coalition won control of the legislature, leading to political deadlock. Despite this situation, in the early 1990s the government repeatedly clashed with the Tuareg, who accused the government of failing to provide promised economic aid, but a peace accord was signed in 1995.

Another military coup in 1996 ousted the elected government and Col. Ibrahim Baré became president, prompting France to suspend its substantial aid to the country. Baré was assassinated in 1999 and Maj. Daouda Malam Wanké took his place. Multiparty elections were held once again in November of the same year, and retired colonel Tandja Mamadou was elected president.